NK 

1505 

A72r 


<i 


AMK'N 


rofz-     /^Y    ^ 


n. 


^  ov^  ^ 


TO 
JOSEPH  AND  MARGARET  ARMFIELD 

WHO  EARLY  TAUGHT  ME 
THE  USE  OF  TOOLS  AND 
THE  LOVE  OF  BEAUTY 
WHICH  ARE  THE  FIRST 
NECESSITIES  OF  THE 
CRAFTSMAN      ^       ^e       je 


"And  God  made  two  great  lights;  the  greater  light 
to  rule  the  day,  and  the  lesser  light  to  rule  the  night. 
He  made  the  stars  also." — Genesis,  1:16. 

"For  every  battle  of  the  warrior  is  with  confused 
noise,  and  garments  rolled  in  blood:  but  this  shall  be 
with  burning  and  fuel  of  fire. — Isaiah,  9. 

"All  great  art  is  praise." — John  Buskin. 

"The  primeval  state  of  man  was  wisdom,  art, 
science." — William  Blake. 


!HE  LEOPARD  LEAPS 


By  MAXWELL  ARMFIELD 


SrMMETRICAL  COMPOSITION  BASED  ON  A  CATENARY  CURVE 


THE  SYNTAX  OF  ART 

BOOK 
FOUR 

RHYTHMIC     SHAPE 


A    TEXT-BOOK    OF 

DESIGN 


BY 


MAXWELL  ARMFIELD 


P   R  E  S  S 


BERKELEY^  CALIFORNIA 

1920 


Printed  hu 

"Che  'Preu  of  "JThe  Courier 

iBfkeleu,  California 


2  0OVj<^      A  7^  J 


HK 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

ANNOUNCEMENT        --.._,  19 

PART  I 

RULES -  21 

ORDER 23 

SYMBOLISM 26 

ELEMENTS        --.--...  28 

THE  THREEFOLD  RULE      -      -      -      .  30 

REPETITION -  31 

CENTRALIZATION 37 

SYMMETRY 42 

PART  II 

A  NOTE  ON  SYMBOLISM      -      -      -      -  52 

A  NOTE  ON  DISTORTION      -      -      -      .  60 

ADVERTISEMENT 63 


}22t9^ 


TABLE         OF        PLATES 


FRONTISPIECE 


"the  leopard  leaps" 


PAGE 


PLATE       I— REPETITION     -      -  -  -  4 

PLATE     II— CENTRALIZATION  -  -  39 

PLATE  III— SYMMETRY        -      -  -  .  44 

PLATE  III— CONTINUED       -      -  -  -  47 


ANNOUNCEMENT 


This  little  book  is  fourth  of  a  series  schemed  to  provide 
a  simple  basis  for  composition  in  any  branch  of  symbolic 
art-language. 

It  is  becoming  obvious  that  there  is  no  fundamental  differ- 
ence in  procedure  between  the  veirious  crafts,  such  as  painting 
and  music,  and  yet,  although  Whistler  may  have  given  mu- 
sical titles  to  his  pictures,  this  was  more  in  the  nature  of  a 
sentimental  stimulus  than  a  contribution  to  scientific  syntax. 
During  the  past  ten  years  I  have  become  conscious  of  rela- 
tions in  this  direction  which  have  formed  themselves  into  a 
fairly  comprehensive  scheme  of  grammar.  Apart  from  the 
difficulty  of  nomenclature,  especially  of  avoiding  the  use  of 
terms  which  now  have  little  or  no  real  meaning,  such  as 
"Tone"  for  instance,  these  relations  have  been  perceived  with- 
out effort  and  are  extremely  simple,  even  obvious,  one  would 
think.  The  fact  is,  however,  that  so  far  as  I  know  they  have 
not  been  perceived  and  understood  in  this  order  previously. 

Although  so  simple  and  elementary,  this  book  covers  the 
whole  ground  as  far  as  it  goes,  including  the  only  possible 
ways  of  combining  parts  in  a  composition;  from  a  chess- 
board to  a  picture  by  Cezanne,  and  from  an  Amerind  gesture- 
song  to  a  Debussy  prelude.  The  terms  used  are  those  of  the 
graphic  arts  in  this  case,  but  these  can  be  translated  into 
those  of  any  other  method. 

This  structural  basis  is  of  course  only  one  very  small 
part  of  the  grammar  of  art ;  the  other  parts  will  be  considered 
in  other  books. — M.  A.,  Berkeley,  Calif.,  August,  1919. 


[19] 


RHYTHMIC  SHAPE 


RULES 


In  one  way  designing  is  rather  like  Mathematics,  indeed 
its  base  is  the  same. 

There  are  the  same  laws  underlying  the  two  things. 

Some  people  seem  to  be  able  to  manipulate  figures  by 
instinct,  without  the  use  of  rules  consciously  applied,  and 
some  people  design  in  the  same  way  too,  and  it  is  no  doubt 
the  right  way.  The  fact  remains,  however,  that  the  rules 
are  there,  and  most  people  need  to  know  them  before  they 
can  regain  their  normal  ability  to  compose  lines  and  spaces 
intelligently  without  their  aid. 

In  mathematics  you  know  that  if  you  want  to  add  it  is  no 
use  applying  the  rule  of  multiplication,  and  it  is  just  the 
same  in  designing.  If  you  want  a  certain  result  there  are 
certain  ways  of  getting  it  which  you  can  find  out  and  apply. 
Even  quite  distinguished  painters  often  make  failures  because 
they  do  not  take  the  trouble  to  find  out  simple  rules  of  cause 
and  effect. 

These  rules  as  we  say  are  simple,  and  any  one  can  learn 
them.  That  does  not  mean  that  all  art  is  simple  or  that  a 
good  designer  can  be  produced  in  six  lessons  or  by  merely 
reading  a  book.  The  ability  may  be  latent  in  every  one,  but 
it  needs  thought  and  practice  to  be  brought  to  perfection; 
and  a  great  deal  of  it.  It  is  a  question  whether  anything  is 
lost  by  learning  rules,  and  there  is  no  question  that  a  great 
deed  of  confidence  and  directness  is  gained. 

Some  p>eople  start  talking  about  "self-expression"  directly 
law  is  mentioned,  in  fear  lest  you  wish  to  make  them  auto- 


call 


SELF  EXPRESSION 


mata.  In  a  certain  sense  it  is  true  that  the  stars  are  me- 
chanical and  automatic  in  their  movement,  and  that  the  leaves 
on  a  tree  are  mechanically  arranged;  that  is,  they  obey  cer- 
tain apparent  laws.  These  facts,  however,  do  not  give  an 
automatic  impression  to  the  night  sky,  nor  prevent  leaves 
from  rustling  in  the  wind.  If  more  attention  were  paid  to 
the  kind  of  "self"  that  was  expressed  and  less  to  expressing 
it  we  might  all  be  gainers  in  the  long  run.  It  has  been 
proved  to  the  author  that  students  who  understand  the  more 
abstract  rules  of  design  turn  out  much  more  interesting  work 
than  those  who  rely  on  "inspiration"  entirely.  One  reason 
is  that  in  the  first  case  the  student  is  not  so  much  intent  on 
expressing  himself  as  on  solving  a  definite  problem,  and  his 
whole  talent  is  left  free  for  this  instead  of  being  diffused 
over  a  wide  area  of  vague  interests.  It  is  also  true  that  what 
usually  passes  for  inspiration  is  little  more  than  haphazard 
suggestion.  True  inspiration  is  as  happily  concerned  with 
the  symbolic  meaning  of  a  triangle  as  of  a  tree. 


[22] 


OM       POSITION 


ORDER 


The  first  fundamental  is  Order,  of  which  Pope  says  that 
it  is  "Heaven's  first  law."  Which  is  only  a  concise  way  of 
sa3nng  that  no  harmonious  state  of  things  can  exist  without 
that  basic  quality.  Blake  also  has  an  incisive  word  to  say  on 
the  subject: — 

"In  eternity  one  thing  never  changes  into  another  thing. 
Each  identity  is  eternal." 

To  be  satisfactory  any  design  must  have  unity  and  har- 
mony, the  result  of  order.  It  must  be  orderly  in  its  arrange- 
ment. If  the  various  parts  of  a  design  are  fighting  together 
for  the  mastery  the  result  is  just  as  distracting  as  a  world  in 
which  people  are  fighting  together.  In  some  w^ays  the  word 
"Compose"  is  better  than  "Design."  It  means  to  put  parts 
together. 

Composition  includes  two  ways  of  dealing  with  parts, 
though  perhaps  it  is  not  quite  correct  to  use  it  for  both. 
Analysis  and  Synthesis.  Any  design,  or  rather  any  decorated 
object  (for  a  design  should  not  be  thought  of  apart  from  its 
use),  consists  of  at  least  two  parts:  the  Field,  or  object  to  be 
decorated,  and  the  "something  more"  which  we  call  Design, 
or  decoration.  These  two  may  be  one,  but  at  the  same  time 
they  are  always  two.  In  one  sense,  in  good  work  the  two  are 
always  one;  in  another  sense,  decoration  may  sometimes  be 
applied  separately. 

Where  the  workmanship  is  one  with  the  decoration  we 
have  the  simplest  unity.  In  any  case  it  is  obvious  that  the 
Field,  or  object,  may  be  Composed  of  parts,  or,  Divided  into 
parts. 


[23] 


MATER 


By  "part"  is  meant  the  smallest  separate  unit  in  a  pattern. 
The  Part  is  always  an  individual  idea  which  is  merely  sym- 
bolized by  some  arrangement  of  the  material  used  as  a 
medium  of  language. 

This  material  may  or  may  not  be  the  same  as  that  of 
which  the  Field  or  object  is  composed.  Thus,  if  the  founda- 
tion in  one  case  were  a  paper  cover  to  a  book,  the  decoration 
might  be  made  of  colored  paper  pasted  on,  or  of  Graphite 
rub-in  as  a  pencil,  or  by  Indian  ink  put  on  with  a  pen,  or 
color  with  a  brush. 

THE  ACTUAL  MATERIAL  USED  IS  UNIMPOR- 
TANT, but  once  decided  upon  THE  USE  MADE  OF  IT 
IS  ALL-IMPORTANT. 

The  particular  character  of  the  material  must  be  allowed 
to  govern  the  whole  method  of  procedure,  and  should  always 
control  the  type  of  composition  used.  This  sounds  as  if  the 
most  material  aspect  of  the  problem  were  allowed  to  govern 
the  higher  mental  aspect,  but  it  is  not  so  in  reality.  Actually 
the  difference  between  paper  and  linen  is  a  mental  difference 
and  their  varied  texture  is  due  to  the  purpose  entertained  by 
their  manufacturer.  To  embroider  paper,  therefore  or  to  try 
and  draw  upon  linen  with  a  pencil  or  with  clotted  paint  and 
a  pen,  is  evidence  merely  of  one's  own  lack  of  the  sense  of 
fitness.  It  ruptures  the  harmony  and  unity  of  the  design  at 
the  outset  by  setting  up  a  conflict  between  the  field  and  the 
decoration. 

To  conclude,  let  us  repeat,  that  as  the  purpose  of  a  design 
is  to  tell  a  story  or  at  least  to  make  some  definite  effect  upon 
the  beholder,  it  is  necessary  that  the  Field  and  its  Parts,  the 
.object  and  decoration,  be  unified  and  that  the  parts  be  ar- 


[24] 


MATERIAL 


ranged  in  an  orderly  way  or  they  will  not  be  telling  a  clear 
story  or  making  a  united  effect.  They  may  and  probably 
will  be  trying  to  tell  two  stories  at  once,  or  the  one  story 
will  be  blurred  and  out  of  joint.  Some  sort  of  rule  then  is 
necessary,  until  spontaneous  obedience  to  fundamental  law 
is  assured. 


[25] 


N         G         U         A         G         E 


SYMBOLISM 

The  next  important  Fundamental  is  that  ALL  ART  IS 
SYMBOLIC,  and  various  ways  and  means  are  used.  (I)  Ab- 
stractly: for  the  purpose  of  translating  the  original  idea  into 
a  language  which  every  one  can  understand.  (II)  Concrete- 
ly: when  the  phenomena  of  nature  are  employed  as  sym- 
bols for  the  additional  purpose  of  redeeming  this  object  by 
its  use  as  symbol.     See  note  on  Symbolism. 

The  medium  used,  the  craft  employed,  make  no  difference 
to  this. 

Mathematics  uses  one  language  of  Symbolism,  Number; 
Oral  and  Written  word — language  is  another,  better  perhaps 
called  simply,  The  Word,  and  the  language  of  Art  is  the 
third.  Each  language  is  symbolic.  This  means  that  the 
visible  or  audible  sign  is  merely  standing  for  some  idea, 
and  that  it  does  not  pretend  to  be  that  idea.  This  is  obvious 
in  the  Ceise  of  a  word,  "house"  let  us  say,  but  it  is  not  so 
obvious  when  we  see  a  visual  representation  of  a  house;  yet 
it  is  more  important  to  realize  the  fact  in  the  latter  case  than 
in  the  former  for  this  very  reason. 


[26] 


N  O  T  A  N 


SYMBOLIC  LANGUAGE 

What  is  usually  called  Design,  as  applied  to  graphic  crafts, 
consists  of  two  divisions,  using  either  different  materials  of 
varying  darkness  and  lightness — known  as  "Black  and  White" 
work — or  using  hues  in  some  concrete  form.  In  the  one  case 
your  scale  of  notes,  so  to  speak,  is  what  the  Japanese  call 
NOTAN,  or  Light-Dark,  in  the  other  it  is  Hue  ranging  from 
those  of  earth  to  the  spectrum  scale  as  we  see  it  in  the  Rain- 
bow, and  which  we  call  COLOR.  These  scales  correspond 
in  use  to  those  of  sound  used  for  musical  expression,  and  just 
as  you  use  or  could  use  merely  instruments  of  Percussion  in 
musical  composition,  so  you  can  compose  in  visual  design 
merely  with  instruments  of  Notan.  That  is  to  say,  you  can 
merely  VARY  YOUR  MATERIAL  ON  ONE  NOTE. 

It  is  easily  seen  that  music  is  made  by  the  arrangement 
of  different  bits  of  sound  on  a  background  of  silence,  so  in 
visual  composition  the  effect  is  gained  by  the  arrangement 
of  different  bits  of  sight  or  visibility  upon  a  background  of 
invisibility  or  void.  In  practice  we  cannot  have  an  actual 
void  except  in  the  case  of  a  darkened  room  seen  from  a 
lighted  one,  but  the  analogy  will  serve.  We  have  then  a 
theoretically  invisible  surface  or  space  rather,  defined  in  ex- 
tent, and  our  set  of  tools,  either  white  graded  to  black  or 
hues  from  deep  red  to  violet.  The  intelligent  and  orderly  ar- 
rangement of  these  constitutes  our  language.  They  are  in 
fact  the  Elements,  or  some  of  them,  from  which  our  design  is 
evolved. 


[27] 


OUR  TOOL  CHEST 


ELEMENTS 


Before  going  any  further  let  us  be  quite  clear  as  to  what 
exactly  we  are  working  with.  The  Complete  range  of  our 
tool-chest  as  it  were.  Our  Elements  then,  besides  the  ones 
we  have  mentioned,  consist  of  two  characteristics:  one  range 
has  to  do  with  movement,  and  the  other  with  dimension; 
so  that  we  have  three  distinct  ranges  altogether.     Thus: — 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  COMPOSITION  ARE  THREE  IN 

GENERAL  TYPE  AND  NINE  IN  SPECIFIC 

CHARACTER 

MOvisMsirT  i>iMi:i7siON  tajuyims. 

(in  space)  (of  space)  (Sefinltion    varying'    with 

, I ,  , I ,  the  craft:  in  the  present 

case   Notan   or   Color) 


Ziine — Ang'le — Curve      length — Breadth — Depth 


OntUne-lSass-Dflodalation 
and 


Sue — Depth — Intensity 
(of  color) 


These  cover  the  whole  range  of  the  tool-chest  as  regards 
elements:  stated  for  space-crafts. 

In  the  present  book  we  shall  deal  with  Movement  only. 


[28] 


MOVE    JI    EN      T-SHAPE 


MOVEMENT 

Movement  in  the  Graphic  Crafts  is  represented  in  various 
ways.  It  is  not  actual  but  implied-  Movement  includes,  as 
we  use  the  word,  the  stillness  of  perfect  balance  as  well  as  the 
actual  movement  of  centrifugal  and  centripetal  forces,  etc. 

Movement  is  what  gives  shape,  identity  and  order  to  parts 
and  to  wholes. 

Movement  is  the  Purpose  made  visible. 

The  Shape  of  anything  is  the  movement  or  rhythm  of  its 
character.  That  the  shape  of  anything  is  the  direct  result  of 
the  purpose  in  mind  in  its  functioning  is  easily  seen  in  the 
case  of  a  simple  man-made  object  such  as  a  boat.  The  shape 
of  a  boat  is  evolved  according  to  the  conditions  with  which 
the  purpose  of  getting  across  a  pond  or  river  has  to  cope  with 
in  order  to  achieve  a  harmonious  result.  The  varying  com- 
binations of  right  lines,  angles  and  curves  give  simple  shape 
or  identity  to  whatever  medium  we  take  in  hand  as  our  sym- 
bolic language. 

A  complete  shape  or  symbol,  the  expression  of  purpose,  is 
taken  as  a  part,  and  it  is  the  combination  of  these  parts  or 
shapes  in  a  given  space  which  constitutes  the  process  of  de- 
sign. It  is  seen  then  that  the  Parts  are  in  reality  themselves 
the  elements  of  a  larger  whole  which  is  the  complete  design. 
The  same  rules  which  govern  the  formation  of  shapes  or  parts 
also  govern  the  complete  composition,  for  each  part  is  actually 
a  microcosm,  a  minature  composition  in  itself. 


[29] 


UNIFICATION 

THE  THREEFOLD  RULE 
OF  UNITY 

Governing  the  Unification  of  Parts  of  Anything 

All  design  is  governed  by  simple  rules  which  are  threefold. 

The  first  "fold"  of  the  rule  is  fundamental,  and  states  the 
covering  fact  or  problem. 

The  second  deals  with  varied  specific  aspects  and  is  in  the 
nature  of  infinite  unfoldment  and  amplification  of  the  first, 
by  analysis. 

The  third  is  relative  in  its  nature,  completing  the  rule  and 
showing  the  way  on  to  its  unfoldment  into  something  quite 
different — though  in  the  same  sphere  of  action;  by  synthesis. 

In  Symbolic  Composition  each  rule  is  included  in  the  sub- 
sequent rules. 


The  first  is   the  rule  of   REPETITION,   or   Parallel  re- 
lation. 


The  second  is  the  rule  of  CENTRALIZATION. 


The  third  is   the  rule   of   SYMMETRY,  or  proportional 
relation. 


[30] 


REGULARIT 


RULE  OF  REPETITION 

This  rule  is  the  basis  of  all  Composition  whatever.  Before 
it  was  invented  (discovered)  all  attempts  at  graphic  language 
were  necessarily  chaotic.  Other  aspects  of  the  problem  were 
highly  developed;  the  ability  to  represent  for  instance,  but 
there  was  no  coherence  or  unity  in  the  whole.  In  art  all 
activity  is  REGULAR,  i.e.  conforming  to  rule,  however  ob- 
scure it  may  be. 

If  you  repeat  anything  over  and  over  again  in  a  regular 
way  it  will  give  some  sense  of  satisfaction,  especially  if 
your  aim  is  to  cover  a  book  or  make  a  border  to  go  round  a 
table-cloth,  where  it  is  more  important  to  have  some  gay 
color  than  to  be  reminded  of  anything  particular. 

There  are  a  number  of  ways  of  repeating  shapes,  however. 
The  shapes  themselves  differentiate  some  and  others  are 
evolved  mathematically. 

The  shapes  used  here  as  examples  will  be  all  the  simplest 
kind,  and  these  are  chosen  not  only  because  the  rule  is  seen 
more  clearly  in  this  way  but  also  because  they  are  the  most 
beautiful  in  this  connection. 

As  shapes  become  complex  and  freighted  with  meaning,  it 
is  distressing  to  see  them  merely  repeated;  one  demands 
variety  in  a  complex  idea.  There  can  be  infinite  variety  as 
v-^e  shall  see,  in  repetition,  but  it  is  the  variety  of  arrange- 
ment that  should  be  brought  out,  not  that  of  the  parts  ar- 
ranged, to  so  great  an  extent.  In  the  highest  "fold"  of  the 
rule  we  shall  find  that  the  shapes  can  be  varied  with  more 
freedom  than  in  the  lower  ones. 


[31] 


O        N        T        I        G        U 


CONTIGUOUS  REPETITION 

This  implies  that  the  parts  touch  one  another.  The  sim- 
plest shapes  such  as  the  square,  hexagon,  etc.,  can  be  repeated 
in  this  way  as  a  basis  for  more  complex  amplifications  or  as 
a  simple  pattern  in  itself.  In  defining  a  design,  the  basic  rule 
should  characterize  it,  although  much  more  complex  rules 
may  be  used  afterwards  to  unfold  the  idea  further. 

In  Fig.  1  is  shown  a  contiguous  pattern  made  by  the  regu- 
lar repetition  of  squares  in  two  methods.  First  the  repetition 
of  the  parts  in  one  direction  only — forming  what  is  called  a 
border — and  then  in  all  directions  forming  the  basis  of  the 
Allover  pattern. 

(It  is  useful  to  begin  with  the  use  of  squared  paper  for 
these  simple  problems  as  it  saves  much  time  and  ruling  and 
accustoms  one  to  accuracy  of  proportion.  Never  rule  lines  in 
a  design  if  it  can  be  avoided,  draw  as  well  as  possible  over 
the  blue  printed  line.) 

Repeat  an  equilateral  triangle  in  these  two  ways. 

You  will  see  that  the  results  are  much  more  varied  and 
different  in  effect  from  those  obtained  from  the  square.  This 
is  because  it  is  a  more  complex  shai>e.  Each  of  the  possible 
ways  of  repeating  a  triangle  has  a  rather  different  effect,  be- 
cause the  eye  does  not  follow  lines  of  direction  as  readily  in 
all  cases. 

Repeat  a  circle  in  the  same  ways. 

Here  we  find  that  a  change  has  come  into  our  work.  The 
circle  does  not  touch  its  neighbor  all  round,  but  leaves  spaces 
between.  These  may  be  considered  as  parts  of  a  different 
shape,  or  as  voids,  or  as  bits  of  background,  but  at  any  rate 
they  introduce  a  new  set  of  problems. 

We    have    here    the   idea    of    ALTERNATION,    in    this 
example. 

[32] 


LTERATION 


ALTERNATION  OF  SHAPE 

The  pattern  may  still  be  called  contiguous  in  its  nature, 
because  the  parts  do  touch  each  other  regularly,  so  that 
Alternation  comes  under  the  rule  of  repetition;  indeed  it 
depends  on  the  rule:  it  may  be  called  varied  repetition,  per- 
haps. 

The  next  way  in  which  alternation  may  be  used  is 
ALTERNATION  OF  POSITION 

This  is  shown  in  Fig.  4  and  is  a  very  useful  method  of 
varying  a  design  that  might  otherwise  be  uninteresting  or 
spotty. 

The  Part  or  Parts  are  placed  otherwise  than  immediately 
next  to  each  other,  in  the  alternate  bands  of  the  design.  The 
relative  position  of  the  two  parts  may  be  varied  infinitely 
and  need  not  necessarily  move  half  way  as  in  the  usual 
method  of  setting  brickwork,  for  instance. 

The  final  method  of  variation  is 

ALTERNATION  OF  COLOR  (OR  NOTAN) 

Where  shapes  are  alternate,  unless  the  shape  is  very  dif- 
ferent, the  second  part  is  usually  edtemated  in  color  also. 
The  reason  of  this  is  that,  at  a  distance,  it  is  possible  that 
the  two  shapes,  being  contiguous  might  be  confused  or 
blurred.  The  designer  has  to  make  the  variation  obvious  at 
a  glance.  Fig.  5,  a.  and  b.  Notice  that  6  would  not  be 
satisfactory  merely  in  line :  nor  would  Fig.  4  be  the  same 
design  at  all  if  treated  as  5b  (Fig.  6). 


[33] 


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[34] 


ANALYSIS 

PROPORTIONAL  REPETITION 

Proportion  relates  parts  as  to  Quantity :  [size  and  number.] 

Hitherto  we  have  been  dealing  with  such  psirts  as  have 
touched  each  other  at  some  point  or  points,  but  parts  may 
be  repeated  on  a  background  or  in  space  without  touching. 
In  this  case  the  rule  of  Proportion  is  the  controlling  element, 
keeping  them  still  in  order  and  unity.  Whereas  Alternation 
deals  only  with  two  different  parts  or  relations,  proportion 
unifies  any  number  more  than  two.     (Fig.  7,  etc.) 

Shape  and  Color  will  of  course  receive  the  wider  latitude 
implied  in  the  freer  arrangement  and  relative  position. 

As  repeating  patterns  become  more  complex,  it  is  usual 
in  good  work  to  find  the  parts  uneven  when  they  appear  to 
be  repeated.  This  is  to  give  the  assurance  of  infinite  variety 
of  individucd  expression:  but  it  will  never  be  found  to  inter- 
fere with  or  obscure  the  fundamental  purpose  of  the  design 
as  a  whole,  and  is  as  a  rule  only  unconsciously  seen  by  the 
ordinary  beholder.  This  uneven  quality  increases  with  the 
complexity  of  the  design.  A  simple  chequer,  for  instance  is 
not  usually  interfered  with  unless  the  craft  used  is  mechanical 
in  its  method,  for  normally  the  slight  unevenness  in  the  ma- 
terial would  be  sufficient  to  give  the  sense  of  variety. 

The  invariable  characteristic  of  Rep)eating  pattern  is  that 
it  has  no  reference  to  the  size  or  shape  of  the  field,  or  object 
decorated,  it  can  be  dealt  with  by  the  foot,  yard  or  square 
mile,  and  so  long  as  it  is  simple  in  character,  may  even  be 
used  over  complex  superficies  such  as  mouldings. 

It  may  be  said  to  correspond  to  the  basic  idea  of  Govern- 
ment,  in  which  as   in   very   simple   tribes,   the   authority   is 


[35] 


N  A  L  Y 


vested  in  public  opinion  translated  into  laws  which  govern 
the  unit. 

Its  character  is  symbolized  by  the  various  expressions  of 
Parallelism  such  as  the  Rectangle,  upon  which  all  repeating 
patterns  are  based. 

ANAI.TSIS  OF  bx:fi:atxng  besigh 


C0NT7OU0USI  AXTEBITATE  FSOFOBTIONAI. 


[36] 


CENTRALIZATION 


RULE  OF  CENTRALIZATION 

So  far  we  have  been  considering  only  such  arrangement 
as  called  for  continuity  either  in  border  or  all-over  pattern; 
designs  you  could  chop  off  by  the  foot  without  affecting  their 
character.  These  designs  resemble  such  natural  arrange- 
ments as  a  bed  of  crystals  or  a  honeycomb.  The  parts  of 
them  adhere  to  one  another,  but  they  do  not  in  any  way 
help  one  another  except  by  this  united  hanging  together,  nor 
are  they  related  in  any  way  to  the  shape  or  extent  of  the 
Field. 

We  are  now  to  consider  the  type  of  arrangement  in  which 
all  the  parts  not  only  hang  together,  but  actively  help  one 
another  in  being  in  some  way  complimentary,  and  in  which 
they  are  individual  in  character.  In  the  case  of  Repetition 
one  might  say  that  the  parts  repeated  simply  by  multiplying 
themselves  indefinitely  and  spreading  out  and  out  as  very 
primitive  tribes  do.  The  rule  of  Centralization  shows  us 
designs  in  which  there  is  a  central  important  part  or  point 
about  which  the  other  individual  parts  are  grouped  much  as 
in  the  old  days  Lords  and  Commoners  were  grouped  about 
a  King,  or  children  about  parents,  and  so  on,  in  communities 
and  families.  The  analogy  is  not  perfect,  for  in  good  design 
there  is  no  element  of  autocracy  or  restriction.  Law  is 
obeyed  because  it  is  the  law  itself  which  shows  the  individ- 
uality of  the  work.  The  complete  unit  formed  in  this  way 
about  a  center,  fills  the  field  evenly  and  does  not  stray  outside 
it.  Every  detail  of  its  composition  conforms  and  refers  to 
the  centralizing  movement.  A  Centralized  design  moves  from 
a  common  center  to  a  defined  circumference,  and  if  the  type 
shape  of  the  repeating  pattern  is  the  square,  that  of  the 
centralized  pattern  is  the  circle.  Care  should  be  taken  not 
to  confuse  a  centralized  pattern  with  a  repeating  pattern  in 


[37] 


VARIETY        IN        UNITY 


which  a  centralized  unit  is  used  as  a  shape  to  be  repeated. 
Fig.  8,  Plate  1. 

A  Centralized  design  may  make  its  own  Circumference  or 
fill  a  given  Field. 

In  the  first  case  it  need  not  necessarily  be  a  simple  shape 
so  long  as  it  has  a  recognizable  and  logical  proportion. 

NO  part  of  a  Centralized  design  can  be  omitted  without 
injuring  the  scheme  of  the  whole.  In  Fig.  2,  Plate  2,  omit 
A,  B,  or  C  and  the  design  is  ruined  and  incomplete.  The 
reason  for  this  is  that  the  design  is  built  up  on  the  individual 
relationship  of  each  part  to  the  central  unity,  and  thus  to 
each  other  part,  and  whilst  each  part  may  be  repeated  about 
a  common  center  yet  it  is  also  related  to  each  other  in  dif- 
ferent directions.  Therefore  the  individual  character  or  "local 
color"  of  each  part  is  all-important. 

The  arrangement  of  the  Solar  System  is  a  good  illus- 
tration in  nature  of  this  type  of  unity. 

Centralization  emphasizes  the  idea  of  individual  character, 
and  variety  in  unity.  It  involves  movement  and  balance 
about  a  central  point,  the  movement  like  the  parts,  complete 
within  the  design. 


[38] 


ConcE-riTKie 
2 


MPVCMfsIT 


TYPICFIL  EXAMPLES  Of 
CEnTKflLiSflTIOn 

4 


[39] 


ARRANGEMENT       ABOUT       A       CENTER 


1.     CONCENTRIC  ARRANGEMENT 

Concentric  arrangement  corresponds  to  contiguous  repeti- 
tion :  it  is  the  simple  enlargement  or  reduction  of  the  shape 
from  or  to  a  center:  within  or  without  itself.     (Fig.  1.) 

The  design  of  this  kind  may  of  course  be  varied  exactly 
as  was  the  repeating  pattern,  by  changing  the  shapes  of  the 
parts,  their  relative  position  or  their  color,  but  they  always 
have  a  common  center. 


2.     RADIAL  ARRANGEMENT 

Radial  arrangement  is  the  movement  of  parts  about  and 
from  a  central  focus.  The  parts  themselves  have  not  all  a 
common  center  necessarily,  but  are  connected  with  one  in  the 
movement  of  the  design.  They  need  not  be  arranged  in  a 
circle;  a  cross,  for  instance,  is  radial  in  arrangement,  but 
they  must  refer  to  a  common  base.     Fig.  2. 

The  design  is  determined  by  the  variety  of  the  lines  and 
shapes  used  and  in  their  arrangement.  A  shape,  for  in- 
stance, may  be  used  as  a  radius  to  connect  smother  part 
with  the  center,  and  so  on. 

Then  the  parts  may  be  connected  at  unequal  but  pro- 
portional intervals  from  the  center.     Fig.  3. 

In  some  designs  there  may  be  two  or  more  centers  or 
foci,  but  in  this  case  they  must  be  themselves  connected 
logically,  or  the  result  is  merely  a  repeating  pattern.     Fig.  4. 


[40] 


INFINITE         INDICATIONS 


AXIAL  ARRANGEMENT 

In  the  arrangement  of  parts  about  a  central  Axis  we  see 
the  effect  of  a  progressive  center,  moving  in  a  hne,  either 
straight  or  curved.  The  simplest  example  of  such  design 
is  one  in  which  the  parts  on  the  one  side  exactly  repeat  the 
other  side.  In  more  complex  arrangements  they  need  not 
exactly  repeat  so  long  as  the  equipoise  is  maintained,  because 
with  increasing  complexity  of  shape  one  instinctively  feels 
repelled  by  absolute  similarity.  Highly  developed  entities  are 
invariably  individual  in  proportion  to  their  complexity.  This 
is  even  true  of  repeating  patterns  which  are  more  than  con- 
tiguous in  character.  The  best  examples  are  always  uneven, 
not  because  the  craftsmen  could  not  make  them  so  but  be- 
because  their  instinct  was  right.  The  aim  of  the  artist  was 
always  to  indicate  infinity  in  as  many  directions  as  possible, 
and  all  forms  of  technical  symbolism  are  developed  with  this 
end  in  mind.  The  expedient  of  broken  color  for  instance, 
and  superimposed  layers  of  different  color.  This  variety  of 
part  applies  to  all  centralized  design,  and  some  quite  com- 
plicated pictures  are  based  upon  a  Radial  or  Axial  arrange- 
ment.    Fig.  5. 

Confusion  should  be  avoided  between  a  centralized  axial 
arrangement  and  some  forms  of  repeating  alternate  pattern. 
The  deciding  factor  is  always  the  completion  or  otherwise 
of  the  design.  If  a  whole  unit  it  is  centralized,  if  not,  re- 
peating.    Fig.  6. 

Centralized  design  is  symbolized  by  the  Circle — center  and 
circumference  cormected  by  radii. 

AKAItTSIS  OF  CBS  TK>AUZEX>   A  TfcKi A  TTGE JCEMT 
CONOENTBIO  "RATtTATi  ''   J  AXTATi 


[41] 


AUTHORITY    UBIQUITOUS 


RULE  OF  SYMMETRY 

The  highest  state  of  unity  is  that  of  Symmetrical  arrange- 
ment. The  Greek  meaning  of  Symmetry  is  to  measure  to- 
gether. Webster  has,  "The  conformity  of  all  parts  to  a 
certain  measure."  The  Anglo-Saxon  root  of  "measure"  is 
"to  meet,"  "to  come  to,"  "reaching  to,"  so  we  see  that  the 
idea  is  a  common  agreement  among  pcirts  to  follow  a  certain 
line  of  procedure  towards  a  proposed  end :  thus  united  in  a 
common  aim  or  purpose  although  different  in  their  individual 
characters. 

It  is  usual  to  speak  of  Centralized  designs  as  Symmetrical, 
and  indeed  a  repeating  apttern  is  symmetrical  as  far  as  that 
goes.  I  have  chosen  to  use  the  word  to  characterize  the 
highest  state  of  Symmetry  because  other  words  more  definite- 
ly applied  to  the  other  states  and  there  was  no  word  which 
seemed  to  cover  the  last  division  of  the  subject  so  well. 

We  may  then  take  it  that  our  use  of  the  word  implies 
the  common  aim  of  a  number  of  parts  when  that  aim  is 
neither  mere  cohesion  nor  mere  centralization.  That  is  to 
say  when  the  parts  are  merely  united  by  Proportion  and 
relative  connection. 

The  purpose  here  is  not,  as  in  Centralized  arrangement,  to 
form  a  single  complete  whole  with  a  definite  bound  and  char- 
acter, but  to  show  that  unity  is  infinite  in  its  nature,  and 
that  wherever  one  may  choose  to  stay,  the  purpose  of  the 
whole  may  be  completely  implied  and  seen.  In  such  a  state 
of  unity  the  minutest  fragment  of  a  movement  is  seen  to 
imply  a  universal  relation  and  infinite  progression  along  the 
same  line.  If  we  think  of  the  centralized  design  as  similar 
or  corresponding  to  the  government  of  kingship,  the  symmet- 


[42] 


FREE        MOVEJNIENT 


rical  corresponds  to  an  ideal  Republic  in  which  government 
is  vested  neither  in  public  opinion  nor  centralized  authority, 
but  in  the  universal  obedience  to  and  understanding  of  Prin- 
ciple, as  expressed  in  perfect  Law.  In  its  relation  to  Law 
each  part  finds  its  right  relation  to  every  other,  thus  carry- 
ing the  idea  of  centralization  to  its  completion  in  Universality. 
Law  means,  in  symmetrical  arrangement,  the  proportional  dis- 
position in  every  consideration  which  will  best  express  the 
purpose  of  the  whole.  In  centralized  design  the  individual 
was  the  governing  idea;  here  it  is  the  inter-relating  common 
purpose  which  moulds  the  individual  part  and  governs  its 
varying  attitude  in  different  relations.  Symmetrical  design 
therefore  is  often  expressed  symbolically  by  the  forces  which 
hold  things  together.  Space  is  no  longer  thought  of  as  a 
piece  of  shape,  or  background,  but  is  the  arena  in  which  rela- 
tions are  indicated,  and  in  which  forces  are  shown  in  action. 

The  parts  are  therefore  no  longer  arranged  about  a  center 
or  axis,  but  in  relative  proportion  to  each  other  and  the 
bound  of  the  Field  (which  becomes  of  importance  here). 
They  move  in  defined  modes  that  are  continuous  forever  in 
either  direction,  but  completely  implied  within  the  Field 
covered,  by  means  of  constant  proportion. 

Movement  in  art  has  no  meaning  apart  from  stillness,  and 
just  as  the  center  represented  this  stillness  in  centralized 
design,  so,  in  the  symmetrical  arrangement,  the  limit  of  the 
field,  the  edge  of  the  panel  or  object,  stands  for  this  idea  of 
stationery  strength  and  permanence. 

The  shape,  position,  and  movement  of  parts  in  the  space 
are  therefore  related  to  the  boundary  line  of  the  design;  as 
well  as  to  other  parts.  Thus  a  square  shape  placed  in  a 
square  shape  will  not  give  the  same  effect  as  if  placed  in  a 
circle. 


[43] 


0    — 


PLATE 

THREE 

E.XRflPLES  OF 
SYnnETRICflLS 
RRRflnGEriEnTi 


P"VCr  OF    A  PRINT     •  HOKUSiM 


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•  OOJTCAL  AK1CI_E.  WtTH^^>J^SPIWP^'^T(or«<M.  C-Om*-iom    CC/>4reX.- Oursioe    '-^leXD 

IMFINITE  CURVES    IM 
WHICH    ANY    PORTIOri  IS 
THE  SAMEL  in  CHARACTER 
t-  M  \x  A3  AMY  OTMEK 


[44] 


COMMON    AIM    EXPRESSED 


The  lines  in  Fig,  1,  Plate  III,  are  arranged  symmetrically. 
They  are  each  different  (in  length)  yet  they  all  follow  a 
common  proportion  in  their  relative  positions  to  each  other. 
This  arrangement  is  known  technically  as  Serial  symmetry. 
In  Fig.  4  a  similar  arrangement  is  shown  in  which  the  whole 
is  implied  in  a  smsdl  portion. 

The  Common  aim  in  a  design  may  be  expressed  in  various 
ways. 

1st.     RELATIVE  SHAPE  OF  PARTS.     Fig.  2,  Plate  III 

The  shape  of  parts  is  considered  in  relation  to  other  parts 
and  to  the  Field  with  reference  to  the  common  aim.  In 
Turner's  pictures  for  instance  his  shapes  are  frequently  mod- 
ified to  a  great  extent  in  reference  to  his  shape-symbolism, 
carried  through  the  picture.  A  well-known  instance  in  his 
"Falls  of  Schaffhausen"  analyzed  at  length  by  Ruskin  in 
"Modern  Painters." 

2nd.     RELATIVE  POSITION  OF  PARTS.     Fig.  3 

The  relative  position  of  parts  is  considered  also  with  ref- 
erence to  one  another  and  to  the  field,  in  bringing  out  the 
common  aim.  The  same  shapes  may  be  used  in  different 
relative  positions  with  quite  different  results. 

3rd.     PROPORTIONAL  MOVEMENT.     Figs.  5  and  5a 

The  Movement  in  Symmetrical  design  is  not  relative  to 
the  character  of  the  parts  as  in  Centralized  arrangement.  It 
is  a  common  motion  which  gathers  up  all  the  parts  in  its 
sweep  and  uses  them  to  accentuate  its  character  and  direc- 
tions. It  is  frequently  expressed  in  the  representation  of 
forces,  such  as  wind,  gravitation,  etc.,  and  is  not  confined  to 


[45] 


ROPORTION 


the  boundary  of  the  field,  but  carries  the  eye  outside  it.  The 
space  occupied  by  the  actual  composition,  however  small, 
indicates  the  nature  of  the  unifying  movement  and  its  infinite 
character:  infinite  in  the  sense  of  never  being  completed 
though  it  is  completely  understood  in  its  smallest  fragment. 

Referring  for  a  moment  to  the  question  of  stillness,  lines 
parallel  to  the  boundary  of  the  field  give  a  sense  of  stability, 
stillness  and  permanence,  whatever  shape  the  field  may  hap- 
pen to  be.     Fig.  6. 

Proportional  movement  as  indicated  by  angle  may  be  seen 
by  repeating  an  upright  line  along  a  horizontal  at  intervals  of 
equal  proportion;  e.g.  3.6.9.,  etc.,  and  connecting  the  apex  of 
one  with  the  base  of  the  next.     Fig.  5a. 

Proportional  curves  may  be  made  by  raising  perpendicular 
lines  of  proportionate  lengths  upon  a  horizontal,  and  con- 
necting them  at  the  top  with  a  curved  line.  Such  curves, 
and  some  spirals  are  known  as  "Infinite"  curves  because 
theoretically  they  proceed  forever  into  space  in  the  same 
proportion,  never  coming  back  upon  themselves  as  does  the 
circle,  for  instance. 

Designs  unified  by  such  curves,  and  by  series  of  infinite 
progressions  such  as  the  spirals,  give  a  sense  of  space  and 
perpetual  movement,  however  small  the  part  of  the  curve 
seen  in  the  design  and  however  minute  the  design  itself 
may  be. 

In  Fig.  9  is  shown  a  spiral  which  is  used  in  three  different 
compositions.  Notice  that  a  different  part  of  the  spiral  is 
used  in  each  case,  giving  quite  a  different  result.  To  develop 
the  sense  of  symmetrically  unified  parts  it  is  helpful  to  follow 
such  arrangements  in  actual  fact.     Trace  the  movement  of 


[46] 


THEEOGEOf  H€LO 

AMD  IT'S  e/TECT 
on    PA\«.TS 


^AS.C  COMPOStO  WITH  THE.  5AMC 
SPIRAUrtS   BASIS 


D 


LATE  THREEcoMT. 


[47J 


MASTERS    OF    PROPORTION 


line  in  the  grain  of  wood,  of  erosion  or  cleavage  in  rocks, 
the  lines  of  wind-blown  or  electrically  moved  cloud,  the  out- 
line of  mountain  crests,  etc. 

Lionardo,  who  was  perhaps  the  first  to  see  this  mode  of 
imification  in  European  art,  spent  much  time  in  this  kind  of 
study. 

The  finest  masters  of  Proportional  movement,  and  indeed 
every  form  of  Symmetrical  composition  are  of  course  the 
Chinese  painters  of  the  early  periods,  and  the  best  of  the 
Japanese.  From  the  very  begining  they  adopted  this  method, 
and  their  infrequent  excursions  into  repeating  or  centralized 
patterns  are  as  a  rule  uninteresting  when  not  positively  bad: 
they  seem  to  be  made  by  rote  without  that  delicate  variability 
which  gives  more  Western  designs  their  charm.  This  ten- 
dency towards  the  freer  type  of  composition  which  is  also 
very  noticeable  in  the  Greek,  Latin  and  French  types  of  work, 
is  usually  coupled  with  a  curious  inability  to  produce  fine 
craftsmanship  in  the  lower  orders  of  work. 

The  Greek  ornament  is  atrocious  from  a  designer's  point 
of  view,  as  lifeless  as  the  preceding  Mycenaean  patterns  were 
vital.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  French,  who  never  could 
design  a  simple  pattern  that  was  not  flamboyant  or  frigid 
and  dead.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Gothic  and  Scandinavian 
designers  and  craftsmen  never  freed  themselves  from  the 
centralized  basis.  It  remains  for  us  to  unify  our  work  by 
using  the  whole  range  of  possible  types  of  work. 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  well  to  say  that  the  habit  of 
thinking  of  a  picture  or  wall  decoration  as  in  some  way 
different  from  a  fan  or  a  coal-box  and  requiring  some  mys- 
teriously greater  knowledge  of  art  to  produce,  must  go.  The 
same  laws  apply  in  each  case. 


[48] 


OUTWARD      EVERY      WAY 


Referring  to  our  table  of  Elements,  we  shall  find  that  the 
advanced  type  of  work  will  use  the  more  advanced  means, 
such  as  proportional  intensity  of  color,  and  modulation, 
whereas  the  simpler  crafts  will  in  the  nature  of  the  material 
used,  restrict  themselves  to  questions  of  simple  line,  and 
elementary  variations  of  Hue. 

It  must  be  emphasized  that  the  higher  rule  includes  the 
lower  without  superseding  it.  Repetition  is  implicit  in  Sym- 
metry, and  centralization  is  merely  an  unfoldment  of  rep- 
etition which  itself  leads  on  to  symmetrical  arrangements. 
This  fact  is  not  seen  by  those  who  imagine  that  we  have 
outgrown  the  work  accomplished  by  men  in  the  past.  In  a 
very  few  respects  this  is  the  case,  where  superstition  has  been 
allowed  to  dominate  the  work,  but,  considering  the  conditions 
it  seems  almost  miraculous  that  art  products  maintain  their 
"modernity"  over  periods  of  thousands  of  years.  It  IS  mirac- 
ulous; such  things  are  a  "sign"  that  the  artist  has  glimpsed 
something  of  eternity,  which  is  necessarily  outside  of  time 
or  space,  and  has  been  able,  in  time  and  space,  to  translate 
that  glimpse  into  a  language  which  is  universally  legible. 

Its  shape-symbol  is  the  expanding  spiral,  moving  con- 
tinuously outward  every  way. 

▲HAZ.TSIS  OF  SmmCBTBZCAI.  ABSAN6£MX:HT 


SEInATITE  SKAfi:   BI:I.ATXY:E  POSITZOI7   PSOFOBTIONAX.  MOVEMEMT 

Note. — This  vast  subject  of  Symmetry,  corresponding  to 
the  formation  of  chords,  or  Harmony  in  music,  is  merely 
touched  upon  here.  The  student  will  find  much  help  in  the 
fourth  and  fifth  vols,  of  "Modem  Painters"  by  John  Ruskin, 
and  from  a  study  of  "Dynamic  Symmetry"  as  rediscovered  by 
Mr.    Jay    Hambidge    (Yale    U.    Press    and    "The    Diagonal" 


[49] 


DYNAMIC        S    Y    M    M    E    T    R    Y 


■magazine).  This  study  is  still  in  its  infancy  and  is  an  avenue 
of  enormous  importance  in  the  symbolic  renaissance  of  the 
immediate  future.  It  will  be  noticed  that  Mr.  Hambidge 
lays  especial  stress  on  areas,  whereas  the  symmetry  of  line 
has  mostly  been  mentioned  in  this  book.  The  subject  of 
areas  properly  comes  under  consideration  specifically  in  the 
part  of  artistic  syntax  covered  by  the  next  volume  (5)  con- 
cerned with  Form, 


[50] 


M         B         O         L         I         S         M 


PART  II 

A  NOTE  ON  SYMBOLISM 


Whilst  this  book  is  not  immediately  concerned  with  the 
symbolic  side  of  the  subject,  it  is  at  the  same  time  impossible 
to  study  design  intelligently  without  an  understanding  of  the 
simpler  aspects  of  it. 


[52] 


OF  THE  BIBLE 


We  find  ourselves  at  a  point  of  outlook  in  some  ways 
similar  to  the  position  of  the  artist  at  the  time  of  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy:  at  a  time  when  the 
very  sophisticated  art  of  the  period  is  out  of  touch  with  the 
people  as  a  whole  and  has  entirely  lost  sight  of  that  vital 
symbolic  basis  which  alone  gives  to  art-expression  its  im- 
mortal character  and  its  universal  appeal.  To  say  that  the 
s5miboiic  is  popular  may  sound  absurd,  but  that  is  only  be- 
cause one  has  grown  accustomed  to  hear  the  word  applied 
to  mysterious  or  vague  modes  of  thought  which  have  no 
right  to  the  name.  It  is  because  of  this  that  the  study  of 
Biblical  symbolism  is  so  important.  The  Bible  is  unique 
in  that  it  is  essentially  the  Book  of  the  People.  It  is  pre- 
eminently a  monument  of  democratic  art  come  out  of  periods 
that  were  not  politically  free.  The  parables  of  Jesus  as  well 
as  the  Psalms  of  David  are  perfect  models  of  the  symbolic 
art-form,  being  true  and  beautiful  to  the  simplest  mind  as 
well  as  to  those  who  see  more  deeply  into  the  meaning. 

The  story  of  the  Prodigal  Son  is  neither  mysterious  nor 
occult,  yet  it  is  inherently  symbolic,  and  consequently  will 
unfold  in  any  direction  as  far  as  the  understanding  of  the 
hearer  can  follow.  The  Bible  is  full  of  such  art,  and  no 
better  study  could  be  found  for  the  foundation  of  modern 
art.     =■=     *     *     * 

The  period  now  drawing  to  a  close  has  been  one  of  chaos 
and  disorder  almost  exactly  analogous  to  the  break-up  of  the 
Roman  empire,  in  which  license  has  paraded  unashamed  and 
has  poisoned  the  popular  mind  with  every  kind  of  unclean 
temptation.  This  reaction  from  a  state  of  restrictive  law 
must  be  followed  by  an  awakening  to  the  true  joy  of  life 
which  neither  Bacchanalia  nor  Oriental  orgies  of  a  more 
refined  nature  can  give. 


[53] 


DICTIONARY      MEANING 


After  a  diet  of  highly  spiced  dishes  the  palette  finds  the 
natural  food  of  clean  fruit  and  bread  unappetizing,  and  the 
sunshine  is  merely  painful  to  the  woman  who  comes  out  into 
it  from  a  dimly  lit  afternoon  card  party.  A  similar  effect  is 
produced  at  a  period  of  renaissance  by  the  vitality  of  a  fresh 
statement  of  truth.  It  seems  uninteresting,  crude  or  weak, 
and  to  have  little  relation  with  life.  It  is,  however,  the  so- 
called  "life"  that  needs  overhauling:  symbolism  is  consistent 
in  every  period,  because  it  does  not  change,  being  eternally 
true. 

The  dictionary  meaning  of  the  word  implies  that  a  symbol 
is  one  thing  STANDING  FOR  another.  This  covers  only 
a  part  of  the  ground.  It  would  cover  the  sun  being  used  as 
a  symbol  for  the  Creative  Mind  for  instance. 

As  a  sub-meaning  we  find  that  a  symbol  is  a  "visible 
sign  or  representation  of  an  idea  or  quality  of  another  object 
by  reason  of  natural  aptness,  of  association  or  of  convention." 

This  can  be  illustrated  in  the  case  of  the  European  Holly- 
symbol  and  its  interesting  development. 

Natural  Aptness: — Resemblance  to  the  Crown  of  Thorns 
and  spots  of  blood? 

Association: — Use  of  it  in  Christmas  decorations  made  it 
synonymous  with  that  festival. 

Convention: — Repeated  use  in  this  way  for  centuries  has 
converted  it  into  the  Red  and  Green  symbol  used  in  the 
United  States  at  Christmas  time  irrespective  of  the  original 
holly,  and  often  quite  otherwise,  than  symbolically,  it  having 
become  a  mere  convention  with  scarcely  a  trace  of  symbolic 
meaning. 


[54] 


VARIOUS       STAGES 


If  we  take  the  subject  of  Symbolic  method  in  its  three 
main  divisions,  we  find  that  in  the  FIRST  STAGE : — 

The  symbol  and  idea  symbolized  are  inseparable.  The 
object  seen  is  not  separate  from  the  idea  in  the  mind  of  the 
beholder :  idea  and  expression  are  one.  This  faculty  has  been 
hidden  so  long  that  it  seems  lost,  but  the  early  symbolism 
of  the  Bible  should  be  seen  in  this  way,  for  instance: — 

"So  he  drove  out  the  man;  and  he  placed  at  the  East  of 
the  garden  of  Eden,  *  *  *  a  flaming  sword  which  turned 
every  way,  to  keep  the  way  of  the  tree  of  life." 

This  passage  from  Genesis  is  both  fact  and  symbol  when 
the  root  meaning  of  the  words  is  gained. 

IN  STAGE  TWO:— 

The  eye  or  ear  perceives  a  concrete  object  which  reminds 
the  beholder  of  an  abstract  fact,  as, 

"As  the  hart  panteth  after  the  water-brooks,  so  longeth  my 
soul  for  Thee  O  God." 

The  danger  of  this  method,  especially  in  visual  arts,  is  to 
become  so  interested  in  the  Hart  that  the  Soul  gets  forgotten. 

IN  STAGE  THREE:—  i 

The  symbolism  is  entirely  invisible  and  submerged.  A 
piece  of  history,  as  an  example,  is  worked  out  in  such  a  way 
as  to  show  the  inevitable  result  of  certain  actions,  and  a 
parallel  indicated,  as  for  instance  the  showing  that  the  history 
of  the  Jews  from  the  Exodus  is  also  that  of  every  individual 
after  his  perception  of  the  fact  of  his  slavery  to  materiality. 


[55] 


DOUBLE       MEANING 


Another  example  might  be  the  showing  in  the  drawing 
of  a  wind-moulded  tree  that  the  vital  fact  was  not  destroyed 
by  conditions  of  nature,  but  that  the  meeting  of  them  brought 
out  qualities  of  endurance  and  so  on  which  would  not  other- 
wise have  been  seen. 

In  every  stage  the  abstract  remains  unseen  and  the  image 
seen  only  as  symbol  undergoing  redemption  through  the 
imagination  or  true  vision. 

In  the  case  of  such  universal  symbols  as  Fire,  Cloud,  the 
Tree  and  Serpent,  as  used  in  Christian  symbolism,  it  will 
often  be  found  that  the  root  meaning  of  the  word  is  the  sym- 
bolic meaning  also,  whilst  the  word  may  now  be  used  as  a 
rule  in  a  false  sense.  This  causes  some  of  the  apparent  ob- 
scurity of  symbolism,  and  a  good  dictionary  will  clear  up 
many  mysteries. 

It  should  also  be  remembered  that  a  true  symbol  has  two 
meanings  at  least.  Its  meaning  as  a  fact  and  as  a  temporary 
falsehood.  For  instance  in  the  case  of  Fire,  as  the  Devourer, 
and  as  Inspiration  the  divine  food  of  the  Imagination.  As 
devourer  it  is  seen  consuming  under  the  figure  of  purification 
— as  of  metals.  The  fire  in  this  case  does  not  injure  anything 
but  the  unclean  admixture  which  is  hiding  the  true  character 
of  it.  It  is  the  same  here  as  the  symbol  of  the  Fan,  separat- 
ing the  chaff  from  the  v/heat.  The  destroying  fire  of  affliction 
is  the  pain  serving  to  rectify  consciousness  or  destroy  sin  in 
it,  thus  causing  it  to  perceive  the  harmonious  condition  of 
things  and  at  the  same  time  itself  being  perceived  as  the 
Revealer,  its  true  character. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  method  of  symbolism 
is  to  redeem.  The  life  of  Jesus  is  thus  the  supreme  symbol. 
Vision  perceives  the  symbol,  which  is  thus  brought  down  into 
nature,  is  "made  flesh"  in  order  to  redeem  some  specific  idea, 

[56] 


TRUTH       AND       BEAUTY 


such  as  fire,  tree,  etc.,  by  raising  it  above  the  earth  into  its 
true  sphere. 

All  visual  symbols  are  not  necessarily  confined  to  artistic 
use.  Truth  as  well  as  beauty  is  expressed  by  symbols. 
Scientific  expression  is  by  means  of  the  Abstract  Number  and 
Diagram  and  the  Word.  These  are  included  in  art  but  other 
methods  are  also  used. 

The  Statement  of  Truth  is  amplified  in  the  Praise  of 
Beauty. 

Praise  is  a  word  almost  identical  in  meaning  with  Art, 
the  roots  intertwining  about  the  ideas  of  strength,  rising,  emd 
enlarging. 

The  chief  distinction  is  that  Art  unfolds  or  amplifies  the 
statement  of  Truth,  or  Understanding;  it  is  the  completion 
of  the  Triad.  Blake,  though  sometimes  falling  into  obscurity, 
often  has  brilliant  gleams,  and  one  of  them  is : — 

"Poetry  fettered,  fetters  the  human  race.  Nations  are  de- 
stroyed or  flourish  in  proportion  as  their  poetry,  painting  and 
music  are  destroyed  or  bourish.  The  primeval  state  of  man 
was  wisdom,  art,  science." 

Except  that  science  should  precede  art  to  be  in  correct 
order,  the  statement  contains  more  truth  than  most  explana- 
tions of  a  similar  kind.  He  uses  "wisdom"  here  to  mean  the 
original  perception  of  some  truth  which  is  understood  by 
science  and  revealed  in  art. 

It  remains  to  warn  the  reader  against  several  forms  of 
diabolism  or  perverted  symbolism  always  hanging  round  the 
heels  of  vision  to  bite  them. 


[571 


PRE    ^^    ALE    XT       ERRORS 


The  First  is  the  worship  of  the  Symbol  for  its  own  sake. 

That  is,  the  worship  of  the  Sun  as  God,  for  instance. 
This  is  idolatry.  It  may  be  seen  destroying  the  art  of  India, 
Greece  and  Mediaeval  Europe  amongst  other  manifestations. 
Image-making  of  all  kinds  against  which  Israel  was  warned 
in  the  commandments.  That  this  does  not  refer  to  symbolic 
art  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  Moses  immediately  ordered  a 
tabernacle  to  be  built,  full  of  "images"  or  symbols. 

The  Second  is  the  sin  of  theft,  the  attempt  to  use  the 
method  of  symbolism  for  material  exposition,  or  the  worship 
of  method  without  the  spirit.  This  is  the  unforgiveable  sin 
the  letter  that  "killeth."  It  is  symbolized  by  the  sepulche 
or  grave,  in  its  final  sense,  for  it  becomes  an  empty  shell  of 
formulae,  useless  and  devoid  of  anything  living. 

The  Third  is  the  sin  of  adultery,  sjmibolized  by  Babylon 
or  the  Harlot,  and  is  the  love  of  the  symbol-incarnate  for  its 
own  sake.  This  is  seen  in  the  later  art  of  China,  India  and 
modem  Europe  and  America.  Its  expression  is  what  is 
called  Art  for  Art's  sake.  Its  visual  symbol  is  the  spectnmi 
or  rainbow — the  unmeaning  love  of  pretty  colors.  A  passion 
for  sunsets  and  iridescence  is  a  danger  signal.  All  these 
three  eventually  commit  suicide:  symbolized  by  the  serpent 
with  its  tail  in  its  own  mouth :  destroying  itself  in  three 
"days." 

The  first  seals  itself  into  a  temple,  the  second  freezes  itself 
into  death  and  the  third  consumes  itself  in  the  fire  of 
eroticism. 


[58] 


ETERNAL       REDEMPTION 


It  would  be  difficult  in  concluding  this  note,  to  improve 
on  Blake's  summing  up  of  the  function  of  symbolism  as 
redeemer : — 

"The  ancient  tradition  that  the  world  will  be  consumed 
in  fire  at  the  end  of  six  thousand  years  is  true  *  *  *  for  the 
cherub  with  his  flaming  sword  is  hereby  commanded  to 
leave  his  guard  at  the  tree  of  life,  and  when  he  does,  the 
whole  creation  will  be  consumed  and  appear  infinite  and  holy, 
whereas  it  now  appears  finite  and  corrupt.  This  will  come 
to  pass  by  an  improvement  of  enjoyment  *  *  *  If  the  doors 
of  perception  were  cleansed,  everything  would  appear  to  man, 
as  it  is,  infinite.  For  man  has  closed  himself  up  till  he  sees 
all  things  through  narrow  chinks  of  his  cavern." 


[59] 


NATURE      TO      BE      REDEEMED 


A  NOTE  ON  DISTORTION 

The  works  of  art  most  notable  for  their  symbolic  char- 
acter are  frequently  thought  to  be  distorted  by  those  who  do 
not  see  the  symbol  clearly.  This  leads  to  two  regrettable 
results.  The  belief  gains  currency  that  symbolism  is  queer 
and  not  quite  healthy,  and  this  is  accentuated  by  the  other, 
which  is,  that  well-meaning  artists  imitate  these  so-called 
distortions  instead  of  trying  to  understand  them.  They  fancy 
that  these  strangenesses  are  the  result  of  wilful  egotism  in 
the  artist,  and  invent  a  philosophy  to  bolster  up  this  per- 
version in  which  they  maintain  that  the  artist  is  "above" 
natural  phenomena  and  can  distort  them  as  he  pleases  if  by 
so  doing  he  can  express  what  he  calls  "himself." 

The  apparent  distortion  of  symbolic  work  arises  from 
exactly  the  opposite  state  of  mind.  The  artist's  vision  is  so 
clear  that  he  sees  through  the  natural  fact  to  its  actuality, 
and  perceives  it  merely  as  symbol.  Seeing  more  clearly  than 
others  the  actual  facts  of  the  matter,  and  realizing  that  these 
are  not  concerned  with  time  or  space-conditions,  he  often  en- 
deavors to  actually  show  these  ideal  conditions  in  time  and 
space,  whereas  this  is  impossible;  they  can  only  be  indicated, 
presented  or  represented  in  symbol. 

In  so  far  as  these  natural  facts  are  used  as  symbol  their 
character  should  be  respected,  for  enlightenment  comes  not 
by  discarding  them  but  by  seeing  them  in  a  truer  light.  This 
is  the  means  by  which  the  symbol  disappears  and  its  place 
is  seen  to  have  been  always  taken  by  the  reality  which  had 
not  before  been  visible. 


[60] 


NOT  DESPISED 


Reality  is  not,  that  is  to  say,  a  wild  void,  but  a  true  vision 
of  what  we  already  perceive  "darkly." 

Nature,  then,  is  not  so  much  the  inveterate  enemy  of  art, 
as  the  distortion  which  art  corrects  through  Imagination 
using  nature  as  symbol. 

Those  who  understand  natural  facts  best  are  the  artists 
who  use  them  most  symbolically  and  whose  work  seems  most 
strange  and  distorted  to  the  uneducated  mind.  This  is 
inevitable.  The  proof  of  the  sanity  and  reality  of  such  work 
being  that  it  appears  "natural"  to  succeeding  generations  who 
grow  to  perceive  its  relation  to  nature.  They  may  or  may 
not  perceive  its  symbolic  intent,  but  unless  their  learning  is 
purely  material,  they  must  gradually  do  so.  It  is  not  until 
the  artist  allows  the  Imagination,  or  spiritual  vision,  to 
control  every  detail  of  his  work  that  it  can  possess  that  unity 
of  idea  which  welds  every  part  into  the  whole  and  produces 
what  will  seem  less  and  less  strange  as  humanity  sees  more 
clearly. 


[61] 


BY  THE  SAME  AUTHOR 

THE       HANGING       GARDEN 

A  VOLUME  OF  VERSE 

THE  FRONTISPIECE  OF  THIS  BOOK  IS 
ONE  OF  THE  EIGHT  COLORED  ILLUS- 
TRATIONS TO  THE  HANGING  GARDEN. 
PUBLISHED  BY  MESSRS.  SIMPKIN  MAR- 
SHALL, LONDON,  1914.  A  FEW  COPIES 
ONLY  REMAIN  AND  MAY  BE  OBTAINED 
FROM 

THE    SUNWISE    TURN 
53  EAST  44th  STREET 
NEW   YORK   CITY 
PRICE    -    -    -    -    $2.50 


[63] 


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